It appears that, beginning 2800-3000 BC, the Yamnaya moved out from somewhere in modern-day western Russia or the Ukraine and began to move into the plains of central Europe. This thread is archived New comments cannot be posted and votes cannot be cast 3.5K 1 171 Related Topics History 171 comments Best Shane_611 1 yr. ago Admixture between EHGs and CHGs is believed to have occurred on the eastern Pontic-Caspian steppe starting around 5,000 BC, while admixture with Early European Farmers (EEF) happened in the southern parts of the Pontic-Caspian steppe sometime later. But DNA evidence from Boncuklu has helped show that migration had a lot more to do with it. Volker Heyd, an archaeologist at the University of Helsinki, Finland, estimates there were as many as seven million people in Europe in 3000 B.C. What is the origin of the legend of the Christed Son who was born of a virgin on December 25th? A woman harvests wheat by hand near Konya, Turkey. Researchers believe they have found the earliest evidence of horseback riding, by the ancient Yamnaya people in Europe some 5,000 years ago. [72], Per Haak et al. After all, even in India, the Greeks were referred to by Japaths eldest son, Javan. (XVodolazx/ CC BY-SA 3.0 ). The Yamnaya culture, also known as the Yamnaya Horizon, Yamna culture, Pit Grave culture or Ochre Grave culture, was a late Copper Age to early Bronze Age archaeological culture of the region between the Southern Bug, Dniester, and Ural rivers, dating to 3300-2600 BC. [] The Yamnaya horizon is the visible archaeological expression of a social adjustment to high mobility the invention of the political infrastructure to manage larger herds from mobile homes based in the steppes. Mitochondrial genomes reveal an east to west cline of steppe ancestry in Corded Ware populations . Using a statistical method developed by graduate student Amy Goldberg in the lab of population geneticist Noah Rosenberg at Stanford University in Palo Alto, California, the team calculated that there were perhaps 10 men for every woman in the migration of Yamnaya men to Europe (with a range of five to 14 migrating men for every woman). [51][52][53][54], The geneticist David Reich has argued that the genetic data supports the likelihood that the people of the Yamnaya culture were a "single, genetically coherent group" who were responsible for spreading many Indo-European languages. [67][62][8] Haak et al. For the most part, they stayed separate.. -"In de beginne was het water" Hadewijch Antwerp p.184. The Yamnaya lifestyle appears to have been a mixture of pastoralism, agriculture, and hunting and gathering which is similar to the lifestyles of later European cultures such as the Celts and early Germanic cultures. Yamnaya Corded Ware. The answer isnt obvious. There has been a remarkable discovery in Connecticut in the United States that could change the way that we view Native North American Society. featuring axes and horses. Another theory, proposed a century ago by a German scholar named Gustaf Kossinna, held that the proto-Indo-Europeans were an ancient race of north Germansthe people who made Corded Ware pots and axes. Modern Europeans were born in the Bronze Age after a large wave of immigration by a nomadic people known as Yamnaya who came from the Russian steppe. 3 How Yamnaya and their ancestors swept through. Thousands of horsemen may have swept into Bronze Age Europe, transforming the local population . 2015. Dyeus PaterThe Original All-Father of the Gods . Representation of a Yamnaya Culture horse rider. [63], According to David W. Anthony, the genetic evidence suggests that the leading clans of the Yamnaya were of EHG (Eastern European hunter-gatherer) and WHG (Western European hunter-gatherer) paternal origin[64] and implies that the Indo-European languages were the result of "a dominant language spoken by EHGs that absorbed Caucasus-like elements in phonology, morphology, and lexicon. Within a few millennia, farmers and herders dominated most of the continent. Today about 2 percent of a typical Europeans genome consists of Neanderthal DNA. How European Farmers Spread Agriculture Across Continent . [28], Characteristic for the culture are the burials in pit graves under kurgans (tumuli), often accompanied with animal offerings. That deepened the mystery of who they were. Within a thousand years the Neolithic revolution, as its called, spread north through Anatolia and into southeastern Europe. Yamnaya culture, also known as Yamna, drove out, almost all the population of locals in Spain about 5000 years ago. [Online] Available at: https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2015/06/nomadic-herders-left-strong-genetic-mark-europeans-and-asiansGibbons, A. They resisted the largest invasion of Europe (the Yamnaya invasion) and were able to preserve and become few handful of non-Indo-European cultures in Europe. Why wetlands are so critical for life on Earth, Rest in compost? That genetic component is visible in tests of the Yamnaya people[6] as well as modern-day Europeans. Society for Science and the Public News. The team zeroed in on differences in the ratio of DNA inherited on their X chromosomes compared with the 22 chromosomes that do not determine sex, the so-called autosomes. This tells us that there was an Yamnaya-mediated "Aryan invasion", but it originated in India and went westwards. Discover Magazine. Because of this, it is not unreasonable to suggest that the Yamnaya men coming into the region were mostly warriors. The tall, powerful Yamnaya people, who occupied the Eurasian steppe north of the Black Sea and the Caucasus mountains in what is now Ukraine and Russia, arrived in Europe between 5000 and 4000 . [Online] Available at: https://www.ling.upenn.edu/~rnoyer/courses/51/Ling512011MaterialCulture.pdfTarlach, G. 2018. To save time and preserve delicate remains, the graves were removed from the ground in wooden crates, soil and all, and stored in a warehouse for later analysis. Later, when the connection with a cord was lost (when the corded wear had disappeared), the meaning generalised to: to decorate, or to complete, as in Dutch '(vol)tooien'. In business the term big data describes large, hard-to- Ranavalona was the 19th-century ruler of the Kingdom of Madagascar. But above all it comes from the new field of paleogenetics. Our open community is dedicated to digging into the origins of our species on planet earth, and question wherever the discoveries might take us. Eurasia has hundreds of different ancient human genomes that can be studied in order to decipher past migration within Eurasian populations. Proto-Germanic 'taujan' thus meant: to use a cord, or more specifically: to finish by decorating with a cord. It also has words for wheat and barley. Immigrants brought art and music, farming and cities, domesticated horses and the wheel. [74][75] According to Pathak et al. When researchers first analyzed the DNA from some of these graves, they expected the Corded Ware folk would be closely related to Neolithic farmers. A new article by Leo S. Klejn tries to improve the Northern Mesolithic Proto-Indo-European homeland model of the Russian school of thought: The Steppe hypothesis of Indo-European origins remains to be proven, Acta Archaeologica, 88:1, 193-204. (Joshua Jonathan / CC BY-SA 3.0 ). How Asian nomadic herders built new Bronze Age cultures . 6) What difference, according to your study, did it make to the Indus Valley Civilisation gene pool ? But they buried their most prominent men with bronze and silver ornaments in mighty grave mounds that still dot the steppes. The Yamnaya culture, also called the Kurgan or Late Ochre Grave culture, of the late Neolithic and Bronze age Pontic steppe is believed to belong to one of several Proto-Indo-European speaking. The Yamnaya genomes in the study showed signatures of both European and Caucasian hunter-gatherer ancestry, but the Botai genomes showed no trace of Caucasian ancestry at all. Two mutations responsible for light skin, however, tell quite a different story. It took Wodarczaks team weeks of digging with a backhoe and shovels to remove the top of the mound. This means roughly equal numbers of men and women took part in the migration of Anatolian farmers into Europe. 2018. But if confirmed, one explanation is that the Yamnaya men were warriors who swept into Europe on horses or drove horse-drawn wagons; horses had been recently domesticated in the steppe and the wheel was a recent invention. Vucedol was already indo-European before this Yamnaya invasion, they were warlike, burried in kurgans, had a completely different culture than the neolithic Balkanians, etc. The Yamnayans had migrated from the Pontic-Caspian steppes to find greener pastures in todays countries of Romania and Bulgaria up to. Europeans are the descendants of at least three major migrations of prehistoric people. [Online] Available at: https://www.sciencenews.org/article/how-asian-nomadic-herders-built-new-bronze-age-culturesGibbons, A. They did engage in occasional raids, but there is also evidence that there was significant trade and communication between different nomadic groups and farming communities. The Iliad can provide new insights on the role of motherhood among the ancient Greek gods, and by extension, amongst ancient mortal Greek women themselves. If they adopted farming from the local non-Indo-European cultures, we would expect words related to agriculture to be foreign loanwords, and not in the original Proto-Indo-European lexicon. . The Celtic . By 2800 B.C, archaeological excavations show, the Yamnaya had begun moving west, probably looking for greener pastures. of steppe people into southeastern Europe was explained as a violent invasion. This suggests at least a plausible connection between the Yamnaya and the Indo-European languages though it may not make them the original speakers of Proto-Indo-European. In fact, there is much stronger evidence that these Yamnaya Beakers were ruthless. The new year once started in Marchhere's why, Jimmy Carter on the greatest challenges of the 21st century, This ancient Greek warship ruled the Mediterranean, How cosmic rays helped find a tunnel in Egypt's Great Pyramid, Who first rode horses? AAAS is a partner of HINARI, AGORA, OARE, CHORUS, CLOCKSS, CrossRef and COUNTER. Based on predictions of PIE culture, this might mitigate against the idea that PIE culture can be identified with the Yamnaya. They built few permanent settlements. For decades, the Early Bronze Age expansion of steppe people into southeastern Europe was explained as a violent invasion. The Dutch words 'touw' & 'tooi' have the same etymology, but their meaning is quite different ('touw' means cord, 'tooi' means ornament), they're related to 'tooien' (to decorate), 'voltooien' (to complete), German 'Tau' (cord), Gothic 'taujan' (to complete/make), runic (on the Gallehus horn, Jutland AD 400) 'ek horna tawido' (I horn decorated/made/finished = Dutch 'ik hoorn tooide'). 12. From my archive, I wrote this in 2018. About 5,400 years ago, everything changed. A National Geographic team has made the first ascent of the remote Mount Michael, looking for a lava lake in the volcanos crater. Archaeologists have found the earliest direct evidence for horseback riding - an innovation that would transform history - in 5,000 year old human skeletons in central Europe. The first modern Europeans lived as hunters and gatherers in small, nomadic bands. Top image: The Yamnaya came to Europe from modern-day western Russia or the Ukraine. The genetic recipe for a typical European would be roughly equal parts Yamnaya and Anatolian farmer, with a much smaller dollop of African hunter-gatherer. This suggests that both may have been the result of actual migrations of people. DANUBIAN ROUTE OF YAMNAYA CULTURE PROJECT, NATIONAL SCIENCE CENTER, POLAND. [47] Some individuals are believed to have carried a mutation to the KITLG gene associated with blond hair, as several individuals with Steppe ancestry are later found to carry this mutation. It happened in the third millennium BC. Call it an ancient thousand man march. The last major contributors to western and central Europes genetic makeupthe last of the first Europeans, so to speakarrived from the Russian steppe as Stonehenge was being built, nearly 5,000 years ago. Researchers analyzed . Nefer Say Nefer - Was Nefertiti Buried in the Valley of the Queens? "This is where we begin. At the suggestion of M. Gimbutas ("Kurgan Hypothesis"), it is generally accepted that the Yamnaya Culture is the source of Indo-European expansion into Europe. Evidence of early settlement in Ireland is sketchy and indirect: in 2013, researchers looked at the DNA of the Irish banded wood snail and identified it as closely related to the species found in . This ratio can reveal the proportion of men and women in an ancestral population, because women carry two X chromosomes, whereas men have only one. But that theory has a major question: Evidence of plague has only just recently been documented in ancient Neolithic skeletons, and so far, no one has found anything like the plague pits full of diseased skeletons left behind after the Black Death. What little is known about the Yamnaya is mostly known from archaeology. Because of some practical reasons. One way to cross-check the possible correlation between genetics and linguistics that might connect the Yamnaya and the Indo-European languages is to look at the archaeology of the Yamnaya and see if it fits with what would be predicted of PIE culture. We seek to retell the story of our beginnings. DNA recovered from ancient teeth and bones lets researchers understand population shifts over time. [71], In the Baltic, Jones et al. Ancient Chinese Earthquake Detector Invented 2,000 Years Ago Really Worked! Analysis of ancient genomes provides the equivalent of the personal DNA testing kits available today, but for people who died long before humans invented writing, the wheel, or pottery. By 3500 BC it had reached today's south west Ukraine outside Kiev.European advanced civilization went eastwards to Asia and not vice versa No doubt the Yamna (Ukrainian for 'pit') or Yamnaya (Russian for 'pit') people spoke an Indo-European language. Although the Yamnaya expansions are well-established, the driving forces behind them remain unclear. In 3,000 BC, nomadic pastoralists from the steppes of Eurasia replaced and interbred with the Neolithic farmers who had settled Europe about 4,000 years earlier. "Europe's fourth ancestral 'tribe' uncovered", "Ancient human genome-wide data from a 3000-year interval in the Caucasus corresponds with eco-geographic regions", "Nomadic herders left a strong genetic mark on Europeans and Asians", "Subdivisions of haplogroups U and C encompass mitochondrial DNA lineages of EneolithicEarly Bronze Age Kurgan populations of western North Pontic steppe", "Mitochondrial DNA analysis of eneolithic trypillians from Ukraine reveals neolithic farming genetic roots", "The genetic history of the Southern Arc: A bridge between West Asia and Europe", "The spatiotemporal patterns of major human admixture events during the European Holocene", "The genomic history of southeastern Europe", "Genome-wide patterns of selection in 230 ancient Eurasians", "Why and when was lactase persistence selected for? Then, two things happened: either Chaos or Gaia created the universe as we know it, or Ouranos and Tethys gave birth to the first beings. On what are now the steppes of southern Russia and eastern Ukraine, a group of nomads called the Yamnaya, some of the first people in the world to ride horses, had mastered the wheel and were building wagons and following herds of cattle across the grasslands. Who Destroyed the Great Library of Alexandria? [40][d] According to Narasimhan et al. In any case, all these arguments point towards the conclusion that one cannot speak of a Yamnaya invasion, as has been the sole approach for several decades. The last, some 5,000 years ago, were the Yamnaya, horse-riding cattle herders from Russia who built imposing grave mounds like this one near abalj, Serbia. They finished the job. Defying every anthropology course, people were not having sex with each other. Fear of the other has a long history. Archaeologists have been able to take a closer look at one of the United Kingdoms most famous shipwrecks. As Greek mythology goes, the universe was once a big soup of nothingness. Their arrival on the continent matches the time linguists pinpoint as the initial spread of Indo-European languages, a family of hundreds that includes most languages spoken from Ireland to Russia to the northern half of India. Insights from Central Asian herders and ancient DNA", "DNA data explosion lights up the Bronze Age", "Massive Migrations? It is likely, based on our analysis, that the population that contributed genetic material to South Asia was (roughly) ~60% Yamnaya, ~30% European farmer-like ancestry, and ~10% Central Steppe hunter-gatherer ancestry. It is likely that once they reached Europe, they settled down and began to practice farming more often. Basque people are secretly badass. The US may well have " E pluribus unum " as its motto, Latin for "Out of many, one", but the Indian subcontinent is arguably the largest melting pot of the world. The spatiotemporal spread of human migrations during the European Holocene. New metalworking technologies and weapon designs are used.[32]. Refresh. In what is now Germany, theres a 70 percent to possibly 100 percent replacement of the local population, Reich says. More mobility would have allowed for less time for the development of large multi-family communities such as clans. Further efforts to pinpoint the location came from Anthony (2007), suggesting from his research that the Yamnaya culture (33002600BC) originated in the DonVolga area at c. 3400 BC,[20][2] preceded by the middle Volga-based Khvalynsk culture and the Don-based Repin culture (c.39503300BC),[17][2] arguing that late pottery from these two cultures can barely be distinguished from early Yamnaya pottery. Archaeologists call this period the Mesolithic, or Middle Stone Age. With 306 references, six greyscaled and coloured images, and miniature images within the table of 130 representative finds, including new finds in Germany and Western China. The younger sons tended to be freelancers who would go off and fight/conquer in order to make a living. 2017. In 1997, I argued that c 3000 BC, PIE (or even proto-Germanic?) ISBN 978-615-5766-30-5. They may have been "more focused on warfare, with faster dispersal because of technological inventions" says population geneticist Rasmus Nielsen of the University of California, Berkeley, who is not part of the study. Recent discoveries in past years suggest that the origin of European culture, as well as some central Asian cultures, is within an archaeological culture called the Yamnaya. The Survive the Jive channel has some quite comprehensive videos about the genetic research about the origins of the Yamnaya-people and their spread into Europe. Thirty-two years ago the study of the DNA of living humans helped establish that we all share a family tree and a primordial migration story: All people outside Africa are descended from ancestors who left that continent more than 60,000 years ago. Get more great content like this delivered right to you! The Yamnaya (Pit-grave) culture was succeeded in its western range by the Catacomb culture (28002200BC); in the east, by the Poltavka culture (27002100BC) at the middle Volga. The origins of modern Europeans are shrouded in mystery and wracked by controversy. [4] Their material culture was very similar to the Afanasevo culture of South Siberia, and the populations of both cultures are genetically indistinguishable. Can we bring a species back from the brink?, Video Story, Copyright 1996-2015 National Geographic Society, Copyright 2015-2023 National Geographic Partners, LLC. She lived during a time when there was increasing contact between the island kingdom and Europeans. More ancient genomes to sequence means more data and thus higher resolution results. In May 1944, the Western Allies were finally prepared to deliver their greatest blow of the war, the long-delayed, cross-channel invasion of northern France, code-named Overlord. Yamnaya ancestry: mapping the Proto-Indo-European expansions Carlos Quiles Altaic, Anthropology, Archaeology, Culture, Demic diffusion, Indo-Anatolian, Indo-Iranian, Linguistics, North-West Indo-European, Population Genomics, Proto-Indo-European, Turkic August 5, 2019 (Hamed Saber / CC BY-SA 2.0 ). Even where the two populations did mingle, intermarriage was rare. [34] The Yamnaya culture had and used two-wheeled carts and four-wheeled wagons, which are thought to have been oxen-drawn at this time, and there is evidence that they rode horses. Along with their light skin and brown eyes, they brought along with them their gene (s) for lactose tolerance. Lets see the DNA analysis on hair and eyecolor (very easy today) of the respective regions, over time, from pre-Roman to now. (2015), the Yamnaya contribution in the modern populations of Eastern Europe ranges from 46.8% among Russians to 42.8% in Ukrainians. [15] The Khvalynsk culture (47003800 BC)[16] (middle Volga) and the Don-based Repin culture (c. 39503300 BC)[17] in the eastern Pontic-Caspian steppe, and the closely related Sredny Stog culture (c. 45003500 BC) in the western Pontic-Caspian steppe, preceded the Yamnaya culture (33002500 BC).[18][19]. Without some major event, its hard to explain. But theres no sign of mass conflict or war. Those Neolithic farmers mostly had light skin and dark eyesthe opposite of many of the hunter-gatherers with whom they now lived side by side. The domestication of the horse would have given nomadic groups more mobility allowing them to go greater distances. May 20, 2021. When does spring start? One interesting aspect of the Yamnaya migration is that it seems to have consisted mostly of men. Called Lepenski Vir, the site was an elaborate settlement that had housed as many as a hundred people, starting roughly 9,000 years ago. [b] Genetic studies have also indicated that these populations derived large parts of their ancestry from the steppes.[1][6][7][8]. Evidence is mounting that pastoralist nomads helped to create a vast trade network stretching across much of Eurasia in which goods and information were transferred. [14], According to Mallory (1999), "The origin of the Yamnaya culture is still a topic of debate," with proposals for its origins pointing to both Khvalynsk and Sredny Stog. [73][c], Studies also point to the strong presence of Yamnaya descent in the current nations of South Asia, especially in groups that are referred to as Indo-Aryans. But when the researchers looked at the DNA later Europeans inherited from the Yamnaya, they found that Bronze Age Europeans had far less Yamnaya DNA on their X than on their other chromosomes. Within a few hundred years, the Yamnaya contributed to at least half of central Europeans' genetic ancestry. Nomadic herders left a strong genetic mark on Europeans and Asians . also note that their results state that haplogroup R-M269 spread into Europe from the East after 3000BC. Impressions from the reed mats and wood beams that formed the roof of his tomb are still clear in the dark, hard-packed earth. (2018), the "North-Western Indian & Pakistani" populations (PNWI) showed significant Middle-Late Bronze Age Steppe (Steppe_MLBA) ancestry along with Yamnaya Early-Middle Bronze Age (Steppe_EMBA) ancestry, but the Indo-Europeans of Gangetic Plains and Dravidian people only showed significant Yamnaya (Steppe_EMBA) ancestry and no Steppe_MLBA. This is also consistent with the discovery that the spread of Yamnaya genetic material roughly correlates with the spread of Indo-European languages into Europe and central Asia. Plague epidemics cleared the way for the Yamnaya expansion, says Morten Allentoft, an evolutionary biologist at the Natural History Museum of Denmark, who helped identify the ancient plague DNA. Their arrival coincided with profound social. All are thought to have evolved from a single proto-Indo-European tongue, and the question of where it was spoken and by whom has been debated since the 19th century. [76], Bronze daggers, arrowheads and bone artefacts, "Yamna culture" redirects here. The Yamnaya originated from Eurasia, and before they migrated into Europe, the people of Neolithic Europe were said to be a communal and innovative society. Natalia Shishlina. In the northern part of the Continent the Western Hunter Gatherers (WHG) are mostly represented by I1. The evidence comes from archaeological artifacts, from the analysis of ancient teeth and bones, and from linguistics. This is because of the types of graves that they left behind. Within a few centuries, other people with a significant amount of Yamnaya DNA had spread as far as the British Isles. The Yamnaya culture is identified with the late Proto-Indo-Europeans, and the Pontic-Caspian steppe is the strongest candidate for the Urheimat (original homeland) of the Proto-Indo-European language. Europeans who were alive from before the Yamnaya migration inherited equal amounts of DNA from Anatolian farmers on their X chromosome and their autosomes, the team reports today in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. The Konya Plain in central Anatolia is modern Turkeys breadbasket, a fertile expanse where you can see rainstorms blotting out mountains on the horizon long before they begin spattering the dust around you. Bower, B. All rights reserved. Old cells hang around as we age, doing damage to the body. It has even been suggested that European women may have found Yamnaya men more desirable for marriage because of their prowess as warriors and their superior technology. (B) The most frequent Y haplogroups (or their combination) in European nations.The frequencies of Y haplogroups that do not differ by more than 1% are indicated by hatching. The group, today known as the Yamna or Pit Grave culture,. The Yamnaya and other ancient Eurasian populations have helped scientists understand not just human history but also the history of human viruses. During the past decade it has become possible to sequence the entire genome of humans who lived tens of millennia ago. It was populated largely by hunter-gatherers, living not very differently from how they had lived when they first arrived in Europe roughly 37,000 years ago. Unlike that flea-borne Black Death, this early variant had to be passed from person to person. Bats and agaves make tequila possibleand theyre both at risk, This empress was the most dangerous woman in Rome. They immediately interbred with local Europeans, who were descendants of both the farmers and hunter-gatherers. In the ensuing millennia, they developed more sophisticated stone tools and settled in small villages. They lived here almost 2,000 years, until farmers pushed them out.. Look at the migrations of today? Heres why each season begins twice. ( Math920 / Public Domain). The origin of the Indo-European languages is another field fraught with contention and controversy. Like those Corded Ware skeletons, the Yamnaya shared distant kinship with Native Americanswhose ancestors hailed from farther east, in Siberia. If we've learned anything from the COVID-19 pandemic, it's that we cannot wait for a crisis to respond. Second, together with archaeology it amounts to a rejection of Kossinnas claim that some kind of pure race exists in Europe, one that can be identified from its cultural artifacts. Stacked to the ceiling on steel shelves, theyre now a rich resource for geneticists. 2000-1100 BCE : The Sea Peoples invade the Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean from the north (probably from the Black Sea). For example, there doesnt seem to be an original PIE word for sea. The Yamnaya also appear to be behind the Corded Ware culture . Over the centuries their descendants pushed along the Danube past Lepenski Vir and deep into the heart of the continent. The people of the Yamnaya culture are also closely connected to Final Neolithic cultures, which later spread throughout Europe and Central Asia, especially the Corded Ware people and the Bell Beaker culture, as well as the peoples of the Sintashta, Andronovo, and Srubnaya cultures. This is found in western Europe, in Ukraine, southern Russia, Uzbekistan, Iran, and among the priestly caste on the Indian subcontinent. Are the Misty Peaks of the Azores Remnants of the Legendary Atlantis? They introduced the Indo-European languages spoken across much of the continent today. [68] Studies that analysed ancient human remains in Ireland and Portugal support the thesis that R-M269 was introduced in these places along with autosomal DNA from the Eastern European steppes. It is possible that the reason for this migration was to found colonies that were politically and culturally aligned with the homeland to expand their culture and their family holdings to new lands. 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